Lets start out with somethign familiar. Smelling Salts. A traditional medicine known for its use in "arousing consciousness", conventionally in the case of fainting and traditionally in oracular practices. The effects of smellings salts are a result of inhaling volatile Ammonia compounds, thus irritating the mucous membranes of the nose and lungs, thus causing an inhalation reflex leading to enhanced respiratory rate and heightened alertness.
The smelling salt works by decomposing an ammonium carbonate salt through hydrolysis (via moisture present in the air) or heat (when used in baking) to produce pure ammonia, leaving behind the salt content. The reaction is as folllows:
(NH₄)₂CO₃(aq) → 2 NH₃(g) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l)
Typical smelling salts add perfume adjuncts to mask the poor stench of ammonia, reminiscent of old pee, to make a more palatable product. These salts can be easily made through simple chemical processes, but first we need a little background because it truly is an incredible process of discovery, starting all the way back in ancient Egypt, making its way through Roman empire and surviving Vesuvius via Pliny the Elder, undergoing refinment thru Paracelsian alchemy and finally into modern chemistry with an aside to Haber-Bosch, ending alllll the way up Joe Rogans nose.
The earliest known natural product origin of smelling salts have been topic of obscurity for thousands of years obscure. Smelling salts are simply the common modern name for the ancient and legendary ‘Sal Ammoniac’.
In the sands of Ammon, a town in the Siwa Oasis, Libya, home to the Temple of Ammon/Amun (God of Jupiter/Zeus), otherwise known as the Kemeten Ram god, we find a pungent crystalline substance, one 'sal ammoniac', an enigmatic title for a smelling salt like type of natural drug substance. This term, Sal Ammoniac, has become applied generically for a multitude of ammonium bearing products over thousands of years. The Sal Ammoniac term, who’s definition has evolved and transfigured over time, indicates the smelling salts genesis can be traced back to the fumigatory operative mysteries performed by the oracles at the temple of Amun.
There are three hypothesis’ which may or may not explain the exact origin of the Sal Ammoniac, and I will present a fourth to us as well that syntehsizes a few of the proposed. All of these hypothesis’ are in fact coming from the oracular tradition focused on the direct communication and communion with the God Amun/Zeus/Jupiter in the Temple/Oracle of Amun, one of the largest and most trusted oracle sites in antiquity.
We know now due to advancements in the field of analytical chemistry that the inhabitants of the Temple of Amun were intentionally producing ammonia for the purpose of fumigation inside the temple walls.
Significant ammonium chloride deposits on the inside of the temple walls was chemically analyzed, and also historically recorded by the romans who scraped the white crystalline material directly form the temple walls for theirs in medicines (borderline a heresy imo)
The Temple of Amun was a secluded site said by the Romans to be the sister temple to Dodona. The town surrounding the temple came to be known as Ammonium, further contributing to the ambiguity of the exact physical origins of the famed ‘sal ammoniac’, (smelling salts) not to mention, the greek word for sand is “α´μμoς”, (pronounced Hammous) conflating things further. Needless to say, we have an Ammonite simulation occurring in Libya.
I will begin with my own contribution, briefly, before going into the 3 most popular theories that already exist.
In order to break out of this layered simulation of Ammon, we must understand that Pliny the Elder posits the chief mythological framework which outlines the route for this naturally occurring chemical synthesis of our enigmatic ritual drug, sal ammoniac.
(1) Plinys' seminole work Naturalis Historica describes a crucial key to the mystery in the form of the “divine camel”. The camels who were ‘consecrated’ and ‘sacred’ to the Temple of Amun, were observed to leave in their urinary wake a mysterious crystalline deliquescent mineral substance. This substance was observed to be produced by the ’solar distillation’ of the camel urine from the “α´μμoς” (sand). Pliny described it as an efflorescing salt beneath the sands, one that gained weight upon exposure to air, and was prized for its medicinal value.
Taking a more technical approach, this account suggests that as the urine evaporated, the urea containing ammonia became complexed with chloride salts (such as NaCl among others) in the sands, thus retaining the volatile ammonia as a solid crystallized mineral, absorbing water from the air to which it owes its deliquescent character. This mineral matrix within the sand interacting with the ammonia precursors in the urine act as a natural chemical synthesis for a type of “proto-ammonia” or ‘sal ammoniac’ which was ultimately collected by the priestesses and priests of the temple who saw it as a “divine secretion from Amun”. It is likely that the Amunites quickly discovered the novel pharmacological nature of this substance which was equally as quickly incorporated into the oracular fumigation occurring within the temple, perhaps simultaneously with the development of the Temple, we cannot say for sure. We must assume that its medical value was later ascribed, due to the appearance of the written records post dating the temple operations. We further must assume that its name, meaning Salt of Ammon, was directly derived from the practice of communing with Amun/Ammon
This divine secretion marks one of the first notable uses for the substance referred to as “sal Ammoniac”.
When this ‘sal ammoniac’ was burned or vaporized in the fumigation rites by the priestesses and priests, the hydrated ammonia salts rapidly degraded first producing NH4Cl or Ammonium Chloride, and further degraded into pure gases ammonia NH3 and a by product of HCl. This NH3 is the key drug component that is active within the modern ‘smelling salts’ and is likewise active within the smoke filled chambers within the temple of Amun.
The inhalation of ammonia leads to the “arousal of consciousness”, heightened awareness, increased heart rate, hyperventilation and slight euphoria associated with the adrenaline surge. We also find HCl as a byproduct, or one might say, impurity. This hydrochloric acid ( or as the alchemists later put it muriatic acid) would have had a nauseating effect to commingling with the ammoniac reflex, building a type of counter acting experience most likely, one waking you up suddenly, and the other confusing you and causing even more irregular breathing responses.
For added context, one must remember that the temple priests and oracular personnel had already been undergoing hours of daily fumigation. These rites included burning myrrh, frankincense, blue lotus flowers (which contain the known psychoactive compounds apomorphine and nuciferine), and kyphi—a complex drug-incense that could contain up to 30 different natural ingredients—all specifically designed to induce calm, mildy psychoactive, and trance-like states.
Add to this the repetitive chanting, hymnal processions, and constant exposure to rarefied form of ammonia derived from the sal ammoniac crystals collected and vaporized by the priests. Taken all together over the course of the day, this powerful combination would have created a significant entourage (synergistic) effect, reliably producing altered states of consciousness and the erratic, possessed behavior that was essential to the dramatic performance through which the priests and priestesses channeled and communicated with the god Amun.
(2) One must interject here though and say, while I personally believe Plinys explanation for the origin of the ammonia/sal ammoniac/smelling salts is the biggest and most accurate part of the puzzle which is the true origin of smelling salts and ammonia, there are other contenders. There is a tree which was named after the temple, due to its proximity and subsequent use in the temple, and likewise for its value in medicine. Dorema ammonium (Apiaceae), was known to exude a resinous substance through its stems and roots which came to be found beneath the sands. It was a highly esteemed ritual incense which Pliny also noted for its medicinal properties attenuating to gynecological and ocular diseases. While there is no chemical evidence yet , the academic consensus and what can be gleamed from the classical primary sources is that the resin was most certainly involved in the incense rituals that were regular practice within the temple. Its now well documented medical uses and pharmacological effects as a GABAergic and opioidergic modulator with application in treating hysteria, convulsion, and epilepsy (due to its neuroprotective powers) make it a ripe candidate for the picking in an oracular practice. Further, Plinys description of this resin tells us it was named the ‘gum ammoniac’ and was mentioned in his work directly after the sal ammoniac. In either event however, the lack of true and potent psychoactive properties, the lack of any true ammonium bearing compounds, make it in my mind, an unlikely candidate for the origin of our word ammonia, or the true fame that surrounds Sal Ammoniac.
(3) The third proposition though for the origin of Sal Ammoniac, I feel ties right into the first and has been documented many places elsewhere in the ancient world. That is, the burning of the camel dung, which likewise containing urine, and other ammonium based compounds, undergoes combustion and vaporization releasing its ammonium compounds into the air ultimately reacting with Chloride present in the air from the salty desert environment, thus leading to the accumulation of ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) on to the temple walls. Modern scientists have attempted to explain the ammonium chloride build up on the inner temple walls as a result of this dung burning practice. It is further suggested that the fumes produced from the burning of the dung was a major contributor to the fumigators rites happening within the temple for oracular purposes. My only quarrel with this is that I do not consider it to be the primary source of the fumigatory incense utilized by the priestcraft for a number of purposes. One being the impure nature and low level quantities of it, when produced from the dung, the active ingredients would quickly disperse to the environment making for a very low level if any noticeable effect at all. There would be far more impurities resulting from the burning of dung that could contribute to the oracular state of consciousness that might be better suited here, ie excessive CO2 build up leading to asphyxiation and deliriating effects, which would be very useful to the oracle. Further, I have searched long and hard for any other known instance in history when excrement was burned for the purpose of producing intoxicating vapors for oracular procedures and have found a sum total of zero. Dung however has been used as offerings and sometimes the smoke and flames were a tool for interpretation of divine messages, but insofar as producing an “altered state of consciousness” in the sense that rarefied smelling salts/ammonia (Sal Ammoniac) so efficaciously does, there is not a single instance to my knowledge. The closest I could possible come up with was the asinine and childish product in modernity produced by undisciplined and uneducated children known as “Jenkem” which I cannot even seriously begin to describe here. A softer reason would also be the shear symbolism of it, it simply is not something worthy of the Cult of Amun, to simply inhale vapors of shit… no no, that is a most uneducated hypothesis to the chemical and historical fact of ammonium chloride crystals forming on the walls in the temple of Amun.
My hypothesis is as such, we have already covered how a proto form of ammonium chloride was noted by ancient historians (Pliny, Dioscorides) to have been discovered around the temple due to the sacred camels dispensing chemical precursors for the natural synthesis of Ammonium Chloride mineral complexes within the sandy matrix. We’ve also mentioned that teh Romans came along after the decline of the temple to scrape off chunks of Ammonium Chloride from inside the temple walls, and we’ve covered the continual burning of camel dung which was a widespread means of fueling fires, however such practice had zero known use in an oracular rite and zero references from any other sites who underwent similar practices both with oracles and with dung, thus we can conclude that BOTH of these practices combined together contributed to the build up of ammonium chloride onto the walls of the temple which those pesky Romans so gleefully benefitted from. Ultimately though it was primarily the use of the Sal Ammoniac described by Pliny, specifically the rarefied form initially found in the sand which was used practically in the oracular rite. This rite included a long list of natural drug products, a hymnal precession and group ~dance~ (for lack of better words (can’t go into it here but see the means which the priests interpreted the word of Amun, essentially involving an oversized boat/gemstone divinatory pendulum operated by about 100 priests and priestesses who were all drugged up on vapors wandering around the temple in unison)) which led to the famously infallible oracles regularly dispensed from the temple.
Ultimately, all of these three potential sources for the application of medicinal ammonia in smelling salts owe their namesake to the Jupiterian God Ammon of the Egyptians, whos multifaceted manifestation was present in a matrix of nouns named in his honor.
Now that we have pinpointed the origins of the name Sal Ammoniac itself, we can move forward to the modern natural product drug discovery that evolved forth from it, that is the smelling salt or, Ammonium Carbonate, which confusingly enough, bares the same name to the Paracelsian alchemists nearly half a millinea later.
True smelling salts come from the western mystical tradition of alchemy. As you can see, the term "Sal ammoniac" has been used to refer to multiple different compounds, from multiple different sources at this point, all linked through metaphysics. This will only be exacerbated by the alchemists who adopted Sal - meaning spirit, ammoniac- meaning ammonia to the product distilled from the antlers and hooves of red harts, which when crystallized, produces what we know today as "smelling salts", and chemically as ammonium carbonate (NH4CO3).
More romantically it was referred to as Aquilia Caelestis, Aquilia meaning Eagle, Caelestis meaning Heavenly or Celestial. The symbolic meaning of the eagle being profusely apparent, associated with the element of air, and is connected to the idea of an ascent and often with two heads, known as the bird of resurrection commonly depicted next to the phoenix, symbolizing the Great Work. Further the bird and eagle are representing the volatile nature of ammonia, as they are both ready to give flight. The eagle, phoenix, and birds, often are connected to reptillians, as far back as Egypt, as im sure you know, which was a sentiment carried forth in alchemy, seen below:
Aquila is also the constellation found on the celestial equator, one of the original 48 described by Ptolemy, which comes from greco roman mythology, and now on of the accepted 88 described by the International Astronomical Union
Aquila in greco-roman mythology was known to carry Zeus/JUPITERS thunder bolts. Many scholars believe it to be based on the Babylonian constellation of the Eagle. If i ever drop a line of smelling salts, they will certainly be called "Heavenly Eagle Salts".
I also think it is worth noting, that Ammon, the Ram God of Romans and Egyptians, whose most notable feature is the horns protruding from his head, have a divinely serendipitous connection to the fact that Aquila Coelestis is produced from the distillation and purification of the horns of the Hart (or Red Deer). Though no distinct connection is made by the alchemists to the deers' antlers, the product of its distillation, and the horns of Ammon, I find this correspondence too obvious to overlook.
It was Paracelsus who paved the way of understanding the medicinal application of mineral salts (as we know with spagyria) and the preparation of the refined form of ammonium carbonate through the preparation of 'volatile salts' like those from Harts horns and hooves that ultimately led into the modern characterization and synthesis by Claude Louis Berthollet, a French chemist, in the late 18th century, who was one of the first to describe ammonium carbonate in a more modern chemical sense.
Its synthesis through the chemical reaction of ammonia and carbon dioxide helped paved the way for the even more famous (rather, infamous) Habor-Bosh mechanism, which allowed for the production of the fertile and explosive ~Ammonia~ through atmospherically available nitrogen fixation and hydrogenation, patented by Haber and commercialized by Bosch which now produces ~60% of the worlds ammonia supply used in agriculture, essential for feeding the ever growing population. Reaction below.
This discovery, highly double edged, proved incredibly infamous as you likely know, because it led to the proliferation of chemical weaponry like poisonous chlorine gas, as well as the essential nutrients of agriculture.
AT ANY RATE, this brings us forward to the main course of HOW TO MAKE YOUR OWN SMELLING SALTS - AMMONIUM CARBONATE - HEAVENLY EAGLE - SAL AMMONIAC ETC ETC ETC.
We have established thus far that Smelling Salts are composed of Ammonium Carbonate. The relative simplicity and natural and synthetic abundance of these two compounds make this simple remedy one easily enough to produce.
We simply need:
Now of course, you can always do thIs the alchemical way, by dry distilling the hooves and antlers of red hart deer, then redistilling the oils produced from that distillation to obtain spirit of hartshorn aka aqueous calcium carbonate, at which point you can slowly evaporate to crystallize the ammonia carbonate out. You also may be cheap and just buy some smelling salts online or ammonium carbonate leavening agent (for bakers) but theres no fun in that. And further assuming you do want to have fun but, you either A. don't have access to Harts, or B. wish to do things without interfering so much with living animals... heres what you'll need to do.
Firstly, there are various readily available sources of Ammonia in america, most easily, aqueous cleaning ammonia hydroxide for the price of about two dollars per gallon at your local walmart. I recommend this because producing prue ammonia can be a hassle.
Secondly we need some carbonate, which is thankfully abundant. Natural sources include eggshells, oyster shells, limestone, chalk, marble, and some others.
To produce ammonium carbonate from calcium carbonate (obtained from natural sources) and ammonia:
- Firstly clean the starting material then obliterate the calcium carbonate source into fine pieces to maximize surface area
- Combine Aqueous Ammonia (NH₄OH) with the calcium carbonate material
- The reaction will readily occur at ambient temperature and pressure as:
CaCO₃ (s)+2NH₄OH (aq) → (NH₄)₂CO₃ (aq)+Ca(OH)₂ (aq)
*In this reaction, ammonium carbonate ((NH₄)₂CO₃) is formed along with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), which is mostly insoluble in water.
- Add distilled water to separate the CaOH and NH4CO3
- Filter the mixture to separate the insoluble calcium hydroxide from the ammonium carbonate aqueous solution.
- Lastly, slowly evaporate the water from the solution to concentrate the ammonium carbonate into solid form
Note* Calcium Hydroxide is very slightly soluble in water, so purity willbeaffected,though this is an efficeint and rapid method of producing concentrated ammonium carbonate. Impurities will no discernible effect on application of finalized smelling salts.
Smelling salts may also be made by reacting baking soda (Sodium Bicarbonate) with aqueous Ammonia as follows:
To prepare ammonium carbonate from baking soda (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO₃) and ammonia (NH₄OH), the process involves first producing ammonium bicarbonate (NH₄HCO₃), which can then convert into ammonium carbonate.
- Add aqueous ammonia (NH₄OH) to a baking soda (NaHCO₃) solution in water.
- The reaction produces ammonium bicarbonate (NH₄HCO₃) in solution:
NaHCO₃ (aq)+NH₄OH (aq) → NH₄HCO₃ (aq)
- This reaction is quite straightforward, and you'll see the ammonia react with the bicarbonate ion to form ammonium bicarbonate, which dissolves in the water.
- The next step is to decompose ammonium bicarbonate into ammonium carbonate. This can happen through gentle heating or by allowing ammonium bicarbonate to decompose naturally over time (it slowly releases CO₂ at room temperature).
- The decomposition reaction is:
NH₄HCO₃ (aq) → (NH₄)₂CO₃ (aq)+CO₂ (g)+H₂O (l)
As ammonium bicarbonate decomposes, it produces ammonium carbonate along with carbon dioxide and water.
- Ammonium carbonate is a volatile compound and will easily sublime under heat. If you want to isolate it as a solid, you'll need to evaporate the water very gently.
- As the water evaporates slowly, you will see the formation of ammonium carbonate crystals, but be cautious because ammonium carbonate can decompose quickly, releasing ammonia gas and carbon dioxide.
Sources
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0269749108001516
https://www.nine-esf.org/files/obergurgl/presentations/Sutton.pdf
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ed059p170.3
